Nina Sunde

• Dahl, Olav & Sunde, Nina (2026). Building organisational learning in policing: the role of feedback and peer review. Journal of Workplace Learning. ISSN 1366-5626. ahead-of-print , p. 1–17. doi: 10.1108/JWL-05-2026-0289. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose This study examines how police employees perceive checklist-based peer review of digital forensic reports as contributing to individual and organisational learning, focusing on traffic-light ratings, written comments and verbal feedback. Design/methodology/approach The study draws on semi-structured interviews with 13 Norwegian police employees working in digital forensics. Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. Argyris and Schön’s theory of action informed the interpretation of participants’ accounts. Findings Participants generally perceived peer review as valuable for reflection, correction and improvement. The three components served complementary functions: traffic-light ratings gave a rapid overview and signalled discrepancies; written comments explained the assessment; and verbal dialogue allowed reviewers and reviewees to compare interpretations and professional reasoning. Ambiguous criteria, inconsistent ratings, emotional and relational concerns, time demands, and uneven organisational support constrained their usefulness. Organisational learning was presented mainly as a possibility that requires review insights to be aggregated, collectively interpreted, and incorporated into shared routines or standards. Practical implications Checklist-based review should combine ratings with explanatory comments and opportunities for dialogue. Organisations should also establish processes to interpret recurring findings and translate them into changes in shared practice. Originality/value The study provides context-specific insight into checklist-based peer review in digital forensic work. Its contribution lies in distinguishing the perceived functions of traffic-light ratings, written comments and dialogue among digital forensic workers, and how they view QC and peer review as a possible contributor to organisational learning.

• Kolke, Laura Vom; Sunde, Nina & Bjørkelo, Brita (2026). Forensic system bias: Systemic factors shaping digital forensic decision-making. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation. ISSN 2666-2825. 59. doi: 10.1016/j.fsidi.2026.302205. Full text in Research Archive
• Berge, Andreas Wiehe & Sunde, Nina (2026). Competing narratives: A comparative case study of prosecutors’ and defence lawyers’ interpretations of digital evidence. The International Journal of Evidence & Proof. ISSN 1365-7127. 30(3), p. 285–298. doi: 10.1177/13657127261441444. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Digital evidence increasingly shapes charging decisions and judicial outcomes, yet its technical complexity raises concerns for equality of arms. This paper presents a comparative case study replicating a previous analysis of prosecutors with practising defence lawyers. Using identical materials and scenarios, it examines how role, access to information, and institutional assumptions shape evidentiary assessment. We compare prosecutors’ and defence lawyers’ judgements on the relevance, evidential weight, and verification needs of four types of digital evidence. Prosecutors in the original study accepted police-reported evidence at face value, integrating it into a coherent narrative of guilt. Defence lawyers likewise acknowledged its potential significance but adopted a verification-led stance, granting high weight only with access to raw data, provenance checks, synchronisation, and independent expertise. The findings raise concerns under Article 6 of the ECHR, highlighting systemic imbalances. We recommend reforms, including clearer reporting, early disclosure, institutionalised quality assurance of digital evidence, enhanced training, and expert support.

• Lundgaard, Jenny Maria & Sunde, Nina (2025). Politi og teknologi. In Larsson, Paul; Gundhus, Helene Ingebrigtsen & Granér, Rolf (Ed.), Innføring i politivitenskap. Cappelen Damm Akademisk. ISSN 9788202837976. p. 333–358. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Beyond error detection - the performative role of checklists in shaping forensic practices. Nordic Journal of Science and Technology Studies. ISSN 1894-4647. 13(1), p. 56–70. doi: 10.5324/njsts.v13i1.5856. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study explores the performative role of checklists in enhancing the quality of digital forensic analysis and reporting within the criminal justice system. By drawing on theoretical frameworks such as Science and Technology Studies (STS) and Actor-Network Theory, the research examines how checklists extend beyond their procedural use and actively shape forensic practices. The study utilises the experiences of digital forensic practitioners during peer reviews within the Quality Control Project (Sunde & Dahl, 2023), revealing how checklists enact professional, ethical, and legal standards and thus shape forensic reports. The findings demonstrate that checklists do not merely guide actions, but function as dynamic actants, co-producing forensic outcomes through influencing both the content and quality of forensic reporting. Additionally, the research advocates for the public availability of checklists to enhance transparency, accountability, and trust in the credibility of digital forensic evidence. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of the transformative capacity (Asdal, 2015) of checklists in forensic practices and invites further investigation into the sociomaterial impact of comparable devices in other fields.

• Bauge, Rune Kenneth; Ryser, Elénore; Sunde, Nina & Horsman, Graeme (2025). Evaluating the scope of peer review in digital Forensics: Insights from Norway and the U.K. Science & justice. ISSN 1355-0306. 65(2), p. 139–148. doi: 10.1016/j.scijus.2025.01.005. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This paper investigates the implementation and utilisation of peer review practices in digital forensics (DF) within Norway and the U.K. Through a comprehensive survey of 113 DF practitioners and managers, we explore the extent to which peer review is integrated into DF investigations and the variations in practices between these two countries. Our findings reveal that while both Norway and the U.K. recognize the importance of peer review in ensuring the integrity and accuracy of DF work, there is a tendency to limit peer reviews to the examination of reports, rather than extending them to more thorough verification of results and methodologies. Utilising the Peer Review Hierarchy for DF as an analytical framework, our study highlights a significant gap in the depth of peer review practices, with both countries primarily focusing on lower-level reviews that are less likely to detect critical errors. The paper discusses the implications of these findings in the field of DF, emphasising the need for more robust and comprehensive peer review mechanisms to enhance the quality and reliability of digital evidence. Furthermore, we discuss the systemic and resource-related challenges that may hinder the implementation of more extensive peer review practices.

• Andersen, Daniel Bing; Sunde, Nina & Porter, Kyle Andrew (2025). Tool induced biases? Misleading data presentation as a biasing source in digital forensic analysis. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation. ISSN 2666-2825. 52. doi: 10.1016/j.fsidi.2025.301881. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Pattern of life analysis has gained ground in the digital forensics field due to the widespread use of smart devices and systems. At the core of pattern of life analysis are the activity-level traces. These traces require expertise to draw valid inferences regarding coherent narratives of criminal events. Such complex tasks also increase the risks of bias and error. The contextual biases have been examined in a digital forensic context, however, the flaws and misinterpretations related to the interplay between the practitioner and the presented data from various software have not been examined through research. This study advances this knowledge by examining the flaws or misinterpretations that may occur during such interactions in digital forensic casework. Our experiment conducted a mock murder scenario where pattern of life analysis is necessary to answer investigative questions. Six digital forensics investigators used two different pattern of life analysis tools, Cellebrite and APOLLO, to analyze the data extracted from the victim's iPhone and answer nine core investigative questions. We then evaluated their answers and identified any mistakes, wherein we further explored any errors that were likely caused by data misinterpretation. Both the output from Cellebrite and APOLLO enabled investigative errors due to poor naming conventions, but Cellebrite's lack of context and details of traces contributed to the largest amount of the investigators' errors. Further, the study examines how biases/misinterpretations may possibly be mitigated by combinations of traditional quality measures in digital forensics, such as the dual tool approach and peer review.

• Sunde, Nina & Dahl, Olav (2025). From intuitive to structured quality control: implementing checklist-based peer reviews of reports in Norwegian digital forensic units. Science & justice. ISSN 1355-0306. 65(5). doi: 10.1016/j.scijus.2025.101298. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Digital evidence plays a critical role in solving crimes, making its quality essential. This study examines the implementation of a structured, checklist-based peer review process for technical analysis reports within digital forensic units of the Norwegian Police. It incorporates two data collections: a qualitative study based on interviews following a trial implementation, and a quantitative survey assessing peer review practices one year after the trial. Using Normalisation Process Theory, the study retrospectively analyses the trial phase and prospectively evaluates the post-trial phase. Results indicate that during the trial, coherence and cognitive participation were achieved to the greatest extent, whereas collective action and reflexive monitoring were achieved to a limited extent. One year later, survey findings suggest further strengthening of cognitive participation and reflexive monitoring, while collective action remained underdeveloped. Additionally, the distinction between systematic checklist-based peer review and intuitive review practices appears to have become increasingly blurred. These findings highlight the need for a systematic and coordinated effort to ensure the sustainable implementation and normalisation of structured peer review practices in digital forensic units.

• Sunde, Nina (2024). Etiske utfordringer ved politiets håndtering av digitale spor og bevis. In Jakobsen, Kristina Kepinska & Risan, Patrick (Ed.), Etikk i etterforskning. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISSN 9788205605602. p. 153–176. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina & Hvalvik, Margrete (2024). Kvalitetssikring og kvalitetskontroll. In Sunde, Nina & Sætre, Christine (Ed.), Analyse i etterforskning. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISSN 9788205603219. p. 317–337. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Selv med god kompetanse og de beste intensjoner kan man aldri garantere at prosesser som innebærer menneskelige vurderinger og beslutninger, er feilfrie. I etterforskning kan feilene få store konsekvenser for dem etterforskningen omfatter, og det er derfor viktig at forebygging og avdekking av feil integreres som en del av arbeidsprosessene. Kapittelet undersøker hvordan ulike metoder for kvalitetssikring kan bidra til å forebygge feil i analysearbeid, og hvordan kvalitetskontroll kan bidra til å avdekke feil i analyseprodukter før de får anledning til å påvirke den videre etterforskningen. Avslutningsvis ser vi på hvilken rolle kvalitetsledelse spiller i etableringen av en god kvalitetskultur hvor man lærer av erfaring og jobber sammen mot et mål om kontinuerlig forbedring.

• Sunde, Nina (2024). Feilkilder og fallgruver i analysearbeid. In Sunde, Nina & Sætre, Christine (Ed.), Analyse i etterforskning. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISSN 9788205603219. p. 111–140. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Kapittelet undersøker typiske feil og feilkilder i en etterforskningskontekst, og spesielt dem som er knyttet til analysearbeid i etterforskning. Feil som er resultat av samhandling mellom komplekse systemer, mennesker og informasjon kan aldri elimineres. Vi skiller mellom systematiske og tilfeldige feil, og trekker et skille mellom informasjon, misinformasjon og desinformasjon. Kildene til feil er alltid sammensatte, komplekse og situasjonsavhengige, og kapittelet ser på ulike feilkilder knyttet til mennesker og menneskers tanker og beslutninger, tekniske systemer, teamet og organisasjonen. For analytikeren er det viktig å ha kunnskaper om feil og feilkilder, slik at systematiske og tilfeldige feil i størst mulig grad kan unngås i eget arbeid, og for å kunne bidra til å forebygge og oppdage feil i etterforskningen.

• Sætre, Christine & Sunde, Nina (2024). Analyse av argumenter. Et logisk analyseperspektiv. In Sunde, Nina & Sætre, Christine (Ed.), Analyse i etterforskning. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISSN 9788205603219. p. 90–110. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  I dette kapittelet presenterer vi et logisk analyseperspektiv, som tilskudd til de tradisjonelle analyseperspektivene tid, sted, objekt og knytning. Vi bruker en argumentasjonsteoretisk tilnærming for å resonnere rundt bevis, konstruere og teste sammenhenger mellom hypoteser og deres underliggende premisser, samt vurdere styrken av flere hypoteser i forhold til hverandre. Dette analyseperspektivet er relevant ikke bare for analytikere, men kan ha relevans for beslutningstaking i etterforskning og annet undersøkelsesarbeid mer generelt. Formålet er å styrke beslutningskvalitet og rettssikkerhet ved å legge til rette for systematiske og transparente beslutningsprosesser som kan etterprøves.

• Sunde, Nina & Sætre, Christine (2024). Spordrevne og hypotesedrevne undersøkelsesprosesser. In Sunde, Nina & Sætre, Christine (Ed.), Analyse i etterforskning. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISSN 9788205603219. p. 37–58. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Etterforskning er en undersøkelsesprosess som munner ut i en eller flere slutninger. Målet er å komme fram til korrekte slutninger, og veien dit innebærer en veksling mellom spordrevne og hypotesedrevne undersøkelsesprosesser. I kapittelet gjøres rede for sentrale begreper som deduksjon, induksjon og abduksjon, hvordan disse utgjør delprosesser i undersøkelsesprosessen, og hvordan de fører til mer eller mindre sikre slutninger. Kapittelet tar også for seg holdbarhetsvurdering av informasjon, og hvilke kriterier som spiller inn når informasjonen vurderes enkeltvis og i sammenheng.

• Sunde, Nina & Franqueira, Virginia (2023). Adding transparency to uncertainty: An argument-based method for evaluative opinions. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation. ISSN 2666-2825. 47. doi: 10.1016/j.fsidi.2023.301657. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Over the past 15 years, digital evidence has been identified as a leading cause, or contributing factor, in wrongful convictions in England and Wales. To prevent legal decision-makers from being misled about the relevance and credibility of digital evidence and to ensure a fair administration of justice, adopting a balanced, systematic and transparent approach to evaluating digital evidence and disseminating results is crucial. This paper draws on general concepts from argumentation theory, combined with key principles and concepts from probabilistic and narrative/scenario approaches to develop arguments and analyse evidence. We present the “Argument-Based Method for Evaluative Opinions”, which is a novel method for producing argument-based evaluative opinions in the context of criminal investigation. The method may be used stand-alone or in combination with other qualitative or quantitative/statistical methods to produce evaluative opinions, highlighting the logical relationships between the components making up the argument supporting a hypothesis. To facilitate a structured assessment of the credibility and relevance of the individual argument components, we introduce an Argument Evaluation Scale and, ultimately, an Argument Matrix for a holistic determination of the probative value of the evidence.

• Sunde, Nina (2022). Strategies for safeguarding examiner objectivity and evidence reliability during digital forensic investigations. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation. ISSN 2666-2825. 40. doi: 10.1016/j.fsidi.2021.301317. Full text in Research Archive
• Horsman, Graeme & Sunde, Nina (2022). Unboxing the digital forensic investigation process. Science & justice. ISSN 1355-0306. doi: 10.1016/j.scijus.2022.01.002. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  As digital forensics continues to play an important role in criminal investigations, it is crucial that its investigative work is underpinned with well-defined and robust methodologies. Over the last 20 years, a substantial body of research has been produced aimed to define and codify the digital forensic investigation process and the stages/sub-processes that are involved. Whilst current digital forensic investigation process models provide a solid foundation, it is argued that existing attempts often only focus on those physical tasks, which a practitioner must carry out at any given stage of an examination, omitting to identify those core thought processes, decisions and behaviours that form part of effective investigative practices. This work presents the Digital Forensic Workflow Model (DFWM), a novel approach to the structuring and definition of the procedures and tasks involved in the digital forensic investigation process starting from the initial ‘Review of Client Requirements & Planning’ stage, right through to the ‘Evaluation of Deployed Workflow’ stage. The DFWM is a contribution to the digital forensic management toolbox, where it enables the identification and management of risk and supports error mitigation at each stage of the workflow. The paper demonstrates how the DFWM functions as a framework for unboxing the digital forensic investigation process based on the investigative strategy of the particular case, providing a detailed structure and depiction of the physical and investigative tasks and decisions. From a research perspective, DFWM is a descriptive starting point, and future empirical studies may expand and provide further detail to the various physical and cognitive tasks and associated risks during the DF workflow.

• Sunde, Nina (2022). Min smartmobil er min borg. Tidsskrift for strafferett. ISSN 1502-685X. 22(1), p. 25–46. doi: 10.18261/strafferett.22.1.2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  I denne artikkelen diskuteres den moderne smartmobilens funksjoner i lys av Bert-Jaap Koops’ konsept om private rom. Selv om mengden personlig informasjon på smartmobilen om både eier og tredjepart har økt voldsomt, er de norske straffeprosessreglene for å ta den i beslag, og etterforskningspraksis for sikring av informasjonen, uendret. Beskyttelsen mot uberettiget innblanding i privatlivet og privat kommunikasjon er ivaretatt gjennom forholdsmessighetsvurderingen, som foretas på beslagstidspunktet, hvor smartmobilens innhold ikke er kjent. Dagens beslags- og sikringspraksis for smartmobiler innebærer at store mengder privat informasjon uten relevans for straffesaken rutinemessig sikres fra smartmobilen. Det stilles spørsmål om norsk lovgivning er hensiktsmessig når en smarttelefon blir tatt i beslag, eller om ny regulering og nytenkning rundt straffeprosessuelle konsepter er nødvendig for å styrke vernet av privatliv og privat kommunikasjon.

• Sunde, Inger Marie & Sunde, Nina (2022). Conceptualizing an AI-based Police Robot for Preventing Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse: Part 2 - Legal Analysis of PrevBOT. Nordic Journal of Studies in Policing (NJSP). 9(1), p. 1–15. doi: 10.18261/njsp.9.1.11. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2022). Child Exploitation. In Houck, Max (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences. Elsevier. ISSN 9780128236772. p. 543–551. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-823677-2.00179-3. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2022). Cyber investigation process. In Årnes, Andrè (Eds.), Cyber investigations. John Wiley & Sons. ISSN 9781119582311. p. 13–50. doi: 10.1002/9781119582021.ch2. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2022). Unpacking the evidence elasticity of digital traces. Cogent Social Sciences. 8(1), p. 1–18. doi: 10.1080/23311886.2022.2103946. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Digital traces are sought in most criminal investigations, due to their usefulness in shedding light on the case circumstances and evidential themes. They are often trusted to be value-neutral and credible. However, a recent study on digital forensic (DF) decision-making revealed that the human factor greatly influences the construction of digital evidence. The study found that DF practitioners were biased by contextual information and produced inconsistent results during DF casework. This article applies a qualitative lens to explore how the statistically determined variance materialises in DF reports. The article examines the role of interpretative flexibility when the DF practitioner constructs the digital evidence. It develops “evidence elasticity” as a concept for describing the mutability of digital traces as knowledge objects. The article explores the role of evidence elasticity for constructing narratives involving digital evidence and how this sometimes may result in misinformation with the propensity to mislead actors in the criminal justice chain, such as the investigators, prosecutors or judges.

• Sunde, Nina (2021). What does a digital forensics opinion look like? A comparative study of digital forensics and forensic science reporting practices. Science & justice. ISSN 1355-0306. doi: 10.1016/j.scijus.2021.06.010. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study explores digital forensics (DF) reporting practices and compares the results with other forensic science disciplines. Forty reports were obtained from a quasi-experiment involving DF examiners, and a quantitative content analysis was performed to determine which conclusion types they applied, and which content they included in the reports with relevance to the credibility of the conclusion. A qualitative analysis was performed to examine the certainty expressions used in the conclusion. The results were compared to a study of eight forensic science disciplines performed by Bali et al., [24], [26]. The results show that the DF examiners tend to present their conclusions either as Categorical conclusion or Strength of support (SoS) conclusion types and that they address source, activity and offence level issues in their conclusions. The content analysis indicates deficiencies in DF reporting practices, and several of the challenges seem to be shared with other FS disciplines. The analysis of certainty expressions showed that a plethora of expressions were used, and that they lacked reference to an established framework. The results indicate that there is a need for more research on DF evaluation and reporting practices and justifies a need for enhanced focus on quality control and peer review within the DF discipline.

• Sunde, Nina & Sunde, Inger Marie (2021). Conceptualizing an ai-based police robot for preventing online child sexual exploitation and abuse: Part 1 - The theoretical and technical foundations for prevBOT. Nordic Journal of Studies in Policing (NJSP). 8(2), p. 1–21. doi: 10.18261/ISSN.2703-7045-2021-02-01. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina & Horsman, Graeme (2021). Part 2: The Phase-oriented Advice and Review Structure (PARS) for digital investigations. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation. ISSN 2666-2825. 36. doi: 10.1016/j.fsidi.2020.301074. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This work forms the second part of a two part series providing the necessary scaffolding for the digital forensic discipline to conduct effective peer review in their laboratories and units. The first part articulated the need for a structured approach to peer review in digital forensic investigations (Horsman and Sunde, 2020). Here in part two, the Phase-oriented Advice and Review Structure (PARS) for digital forensic investigations is offered. PARS is the first documented peer review methodology for the digital forensics field, a six staged approach designed to formally support organisations and their staff in their goal of facilitating effective peer review of DF work, from investigative tasks to forensic activities and forensic analysis processes (Pollitt et al., 2018). This article discusses how the PARS methodology can be implemented, and the available options and mechanisms available to ease the interpretation of this model into existing practices. Both the early ‘Advisor’ and later ‘Reviewer’ roles in PARS are discussed and their requirements and expectations are defined. Three template documents are provided and explained: The PARS Advisors template, the PARS Advisor Brief template and the PARS Peer Review Hierarchy template, for direct use by organisations seeking to adopt the PARS methodology.

• Lentz, Lene Wacher & Sunde, Nina (2021). The use of historical call data records as evidence in the criminal justice system – lessons learned from the Danish telecom scandal. Digital Evidence and Electronic Signature Law Review. ISSN 1756-4611. 18, p. 1–17. doi: 10.14296/deeslr.v18i0.5235. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Historical call data records (HCDR) are frequently used as evidence in criminal trials. However, several inherent uncertainties are associated with HCDR data, and, additionally, errors may occur when law enforcement processes the data. In Denmark, processing errors were introduced into HCDR from 2010 until 2019. The Danish authorities are currently reviewing more than 10,000 criminal cases in order to secure a fair trial. This article conducts a socio-technical analysis of the Danish telecom scandal, which shows that, in addition to the processing errors highlighted,1 sources of error are related to competence, cognitive factors and inadequate quality management.

• Sunde, Nina & Dror, Itiel E. (2021). A hierarchy of expert performance (HEP) applied to digital forensics: Reliability and biasability in digital forensics decision making. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation. ISSN 2666-2825. 37. doi: 10.1016/j.fsidi.2021.301175. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2020). Structured Hypothesis Development in Criminal Investigation: A method aimed at providing a broad and objective starting point for a criminal investigation. The Police Journal. ISSN 0032-258X. p. 1–17. doi: 10.1177/0032258X20982328. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The Structured Hypothesis Development in Criminal Investigation (SHDCI) method aims to assist detectives in developing an adequate set of hypotheses, which prepares the ground for a broad and objective investigation. The method aims to protect the innocent, while also enabling the detectives to discover the full scope of the incident under investigation. SHDCI builds on theory and principles from cognitive psychology, scientific methodology, logical reasoning, law and criminal investigation best practice. The method is developed in a Norwegian context, but builds on universally accepted legal principles, and SHDCI may therefore be relevant for implementation in other jurisdictions.

• Horsman, Graeme & Sunde, Nina (2020). Part 1: The need for peer review in digital forensics. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation. ISSN 2666-2825. 35. doi: 10.1016/j.fsidi.2020.301062. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The importance of peer review in the field of digital forensics cannot be underestimated as it often forms the primary, and sometimes only form of quality assurance process an organisation will apply to their practitioners' casework. Whilst there is clear value in the peer review process, it remains an area which is arguably undervalued and under-researched, where little academic and industrial commentary can be found describing best practice approaches. This work forms the first of a two part series discussing why the digital forensics discipline and its organisations should conduct peer review in their laboratories, what it should review as part of this process, and how this should be undertaken. Here in part one, a critical review of the need to peer review is offered along with a discussion of the limitations of existing peer review mechanisms. Finally, the ‘Peer Review Hierarchy’ is offered, outlining the seven levels of peer review available for reviewing practitioner findings.

• Sunde, Nina (2020). Digitale bevis i norske gjenåpningsbegjæringer–kan vi utelukke systematiske feil? Tidsskrift for strafferett. ISSN 1502-685X. 20(1), p. 18–37. doi: 10.18261/issn.0809-9537-2020-01-03. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Digitale bevis betraktes gjerne som objektive og pålitelige bevis. I denne artikkelen settes søkelyset på hvor gyldig slutningen egentlig er. Vet vi egentlig nok til å kunne utelukke systematiske feil i vurderingen av noen bevistyper som f.eks. digitale bevis ved behandlingen av gjenåpningsbegjæringer? En analyse av Gjenopptakelseskommisjonens gjenåpnede saker fram til august 2019, samt et utvalg av 100 ikke gjenåpnede saker, viser at digitale bevis er tatt i betraktning i 6 av de 307 gjenåpnede sakene. Analysen av de ikke gjenåpnede sakene viser en langt større forekomst av digitale bevis, og at begrunnelsen domfelte oftest gjør gjeldende i gjenåpningsbegjæringen, er at retten har misforstått eller feilvurdert det digitale beviset. Nøkkelord: justisfeil, systematiske feil, gjenopptakelseskommisjonen, dataetterforskning, digitale bevis, kvalitet, bevisbedømmelse

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• Sunde, Nina & Sætre, Christine (2024). Analyse i etterforskning. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISBN 9788205603219. 342 p. Full text in Research Archive

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• Sunde, Nina; Kolke, Laura Vom & Bjørkelo, Brita (2026). Executive Summary for Deliverable 2.2: Organisational Culture. doi: https:/claruseu.net/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/D2.2-Executive-Summary-1.pdf. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The Clarus project brings together forensic scientists, academics, police, linguists, the public and other professionals across borders to understand how communication, professional culture, and decision-making influence the way digital evidence is handled.

• Bjørkelo, Brita; Kolke, Laura Vom & Sunde, Nina (2026). Executive Summary for Deliverable 1.4: Residual sources of bias. doi: https:/claruseu.net/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/CLARUS-Executive-Summary-D1.4-8.pdf. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The Clarus project brings together forensic scientists, academics, police, linguists, the public and other professionals across borders to understand how communication, professional culture, and decision-making influence the way digital evidence is handled.

• Sunde, Nina (2025). Digitale bevis – Hvordan sikre påliteligheten? Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Digitale spor - Om pålitelighet, kompetanse og troen på det ufeilbarlige. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina; Hansen, Jon Terje Hellgren & Raaum, Peter (2025). Ethvert elektronisk system kan ha feil. [Journal]. Motor. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hvordan skal politiet tolke digitale bevis i sin etterforskning? Og må det nødvendigvis være menneskelig svikt når de digitale sporene ikke viser noen feil?

• Sunde, Nina (2025). KI og digitale bevis, muligheter og fallgruver. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Mulige fallgruver ved vurderingen av digitale bevis. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). All that glitters is not gold - from promising digital traces to reliable evidence. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Unpacking the Human Factor: Navigating Individual, Socio-Technical, and Systemic Challenges in Incident Investigations. doi: https:/youtu.be/9z-bn89yzH8?si=ODlLzJGpEsWq_9D1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This presentation examines how human factors shape the reliability and interpretation of evidence in incident investigations. It highlights the interplay between individual cognition, socio-technical systems, and institutional structures, showing how bias and error can emerge at multiple levels of the investigative process. While grounded in examples from digital forensic practice, the analysis extends to broader investigative contexts, examining how individuals, technology, and organisational routines influence outcomes. By unpacking these dynamics, the presentation aims to foster critical reflection on current investigative practices and identify pathways toward more robust and accountable incident investigations.

• Sunde, Nina (2025). Det er ikke gull alt som glimrer – fra lovende digitale spor til pålitelige bevis. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Politiets arbeid med digitale spor - muligheter og utfordringer. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Truth in the era of deepfakes - implications for crime solving. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Deepfake technology, powered by artificial intelligence, enables the creation of hyper-realistic but fabricated audio-visual content, posing significant challenges to the criminal justice system. By facilitating the manipulation of digital evidence, deepfakes undermine trust in the authenticity of media relied upon by law enforcement and courts, raising serious concerns about the integrity of investigative and judicial processes. This paper examines these challenges through two case studies: one focusing on the creation and dissemination of child sexual abuse materials (CSAM), and the other on the use of deepfakes to perpetrate financial fraud.The discussion highlights the difficulties faced by police in investigating such cases, including identifying victims and perpetrators. The paper also explores the implications of this emerging threat for policy, legal frameworks, and forensic practices, concluding with suggestions for future research and practical solutions to counter deepfake-enabled crimes.

• Sunde, Nina (2025). Synthetic or Authentic? The Evidentiary Challenges of Deepfakes and AI-Generated Media Digital Darkside Symposium. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Deepfake technology, powered by generative artificial intelligence, enables the creation of highly realistic yet fabricated audio-visual content. This poses serious challenges for the criminal justice system by undermining the reliability of digital media used in investigations and prosecutions. As the boundary between authentic and synthetic material blurs, the ability of law enforcement, forensic analysts, and courts to assess evidentiary value is increasingly uncertain. This presentation addresses these challenges through a case study on the creation and dissemination of AI-generated child sexual abuse material (CSAM). It underscores the urgent need for robust forensic standards, reliable authentication protocols, and integrated technological and judicial literacy to preserve evidentiary integrity in an era where visual credibility can no longer be assumed.

• Sunde, Nina; Kolke, Laura Vom & Bjørkelo, Brita (2025). Examining systemic sources of bias in interaction and communication within organisational culture. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  (Presentation was part of a panel) The second work package of the Clarus project examined patterns of interaction and communication across organisational, professional, and national boundaries through a hypothetical scenario. This enabled an in-depth analysis of misunderstandings, errors, and biases in a digital forensic environment. Building on the system and mental maps developed in Work Package 1, Work Package 2 implemented a case study involving focus groups in each Clarus partner country composed of practitioners from their law enforcement agencies and forensic institutes. Participants engaged with a scenario featuring an alleged crime where a smartphone serves as a key piece of evidence, containing digital, DNA, and fingerprint data. Representing distinct legal and professional systems, the participants outlined their typical procedures for handling digital evidence, detailing their reporting methods and interactions with other actors. This shed light on how forensic and law enforcement professionals collaborate within and across different jurisdictions and organisational frameworks. The focus groups also provided a platform for assessing organisational cultures in action and identifying potential sources of systemic bias. The findings, resulting from a comparative assessment of these biases and their impact on impartiality and objectivity, will be presented at this conference.

• Sunde, Nina & Bruce, Ingvild (2025). Digitale bevis og kunstig intelligens. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Digitale bevis - hvordan kan man sikre og kvalitetssikre digitale bevis. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). From individuals to systems: Unpacking bias in digital forensic practices. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Individual, social and systemic biases in digital forensics. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Mulige fallgruver i vurderingen av digitale bevis. Full text in Research Archive
• Kolke, Laura Vom; Sunde, Nina & Bjørkelo, Brita (2025). The CLARUS Project – Building Clarity and Preventing Bias in Digital Forensic Examination, Interorganisational Communication and Interaction. Full text in Research Archive
• Kolke, Laura Vom; Sunde, Nina & Bjørkelo, Brita (2025). System Bias in the Interorganisational Environment of Digital Forensics. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina & Franqueira, Virginia N.L. (2025). Corrigendum to “Adding transparency to uncertainty: An argument-based method for evaluative opinions” [FSIDI 48 (2023) 301657](S2666281723001762)(10.1016/j.fsidi.2023.301657). Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation. ISSN 2666-2825. 53. doi: 10.1016/j.fsidi.2025.301910. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Det er ikke gull alt som glimrer - fra lovende digitale spor til pålitelige bevis. Full text in Research Archive
• Hansen, Jon Terje Hellgren; Raaum, Peter & Sunde, Nina (2025). Hvordan tolkes digitale bevis "Ethvert elektronisk system kan ha feil". [Journal]. Motor 2/2025. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2025). Unpacking the Human Factor: Navigating Individual, Socio-Technical, and Systemic Challenges in Incident Investigations. Full text in Research Archive
• Bjørkelo, Brita; Sunde, Nina; Kolke, Laura Vom & Wegorowski, Piotr (2024). WP2 – Exploring Cultures, communication and interaction. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina & Sætre, Christine (2024). Innledning. In Sunde, Nina & Sætre, Christine (Ed.), Analyse i etterforskning. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISSN 9788205603219. p. 15–21. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2024). Objektive undersøkelser av objektive spor? Den menneskelige faktors betydning for kvaliteten på digitale bevis. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2024). Technical and human errors (and their sources) related to the collection and presentation of electronic evidence. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2024). Tools as biasing sources. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina & Andersen, Daniel Bing (2024). Tools as biasing sources. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2024). Kvalitetssikringsnivåer – funn og anbefalinger. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina & Ellertsen, Kim (2024). Digitale bevis – hvilke krav kan stilles til behandlingen og kvalitetssikringen av disse i straffesakskjeden? Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2024). Kunstig intelligens og digitale bevis – muligheter og fallgruver. Full text in Research Archive
• Hol, Maud & Sunde, Nina (2023). Vi legger fra oss digitale spor over alt. [Internet]. Universitetet i Oslo. doi: https:/www.jus.uio.no/ikrs/forskning/aktuelt/aktuelle-saker/2023/legger-fra-oss-digitale-spor-over-alt-nina-sunde. Full text in Research Archive
• Bjørkelo, Brita & Sunde, Nina (2023). Clarus WP 2:​ Exploring cultures, communication and interaction​. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2023). Bias og reliabilitet i dataetterforskeres vurderinger og beslutninger. Full text in Research Archive
• Ugelvik, Thomas & Sunde, Nina (2023). Digitale bevis, anvendt kriminologi, etterforskningsforskning. [Internet]. Kriminologiene - Podcast. Full text in Research Archive
• Inderhaug, Erik & Sunde, Nina (2023). Ny forskning: Digitale bevis er ikke alltid objektive og nøytrale. [Internet]. Politiforum - internettpublisering. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2023). Vilken roll spelar IT-forensiker i konstruktionen av digitala bevis? Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2023). Bias and noise in incident handling and investigative decision-making. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina & Lande, Ola Berg (2023). Den menneskelige faktoren ved tolkning av digitale bevis. [Radio]. Dommerpodden (Podcast). Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2023). Om å konstruere digitale bevis - en studie av hvordan den menneskelige faktor påvirker digitale bevis. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina & Dahl, Olav (2023). Resultater fra Kvalitetskontrollprosjektet. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2023). Hypotesetesting - Nei, det får noen andre ta seg av. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2023). Beyond error detection. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Recent studies indicate a lack of standardized quality assurance in Norwegian Digital Forensics (DF) units, suggesting a heightened potential for errors or misleading outcomes (Jahren, 2020; Bauge, 2023). Given the absence of systematic and mandatory quality control in the DF process, we introduced a checklist aimed at enhancing quality oversight. Seven DF units within the Norwegian police volunteered to pilot this checklist over a six-month period. Subsequent interviews with managers (n=7) and DF experts (n=13) from these units provided insights into their operational practices, their perception of error risks, and their experiences using the checklist. Preliminary findings suggest that while the checklist bolstered quality, it also had some unexpected effects on internal practices and discussions among the participating units.

• Sunde, Nina (2023). Når effektivitet trumfer kvalitet. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2022). Beslutningsfeil og støy i hendelseshåndtering og etterforskning. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2022). Crafting scientificness. Documentation and reporting practices in digital forensic investigations for constructing credible digital evidence. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2022). Developing PrevBOT - an ML based chatbot aiemd to assist law enforcement in preventing online child sexual exploitation and abuse. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2021). Dataetterforskere - Mennesker eller maskiner. Politiforum. ISSN 1500-6921. 06(07), p. 76–77. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2021). Quality in digital forensic examinations– Do digital forensic examiners produce consistent results? Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2021). Quality in digital forensic examinations – Do digital forensic examiners produce consistent results? Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina & Lentz, Lene W. (2021). Lessons learned from the Danish telecom scandal. Full text in Research Archive
• Østergård, Tine & Sunde, Nina (2021). Tekniske beviser er mindre objektive, end vi tror. [Journal]. Advokaten 04/2021. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Digitale beviser tolkes så forskelligt blandt dataefterforskere, at det i værste fald kan medføre forkerte domfældelser, viser norsk forskningsprosjekt

• Sunde, Nina (2021). Feil og feilkilder ved digitale bevis – klarer vi å skille mellom god og dårlig kvalitet? Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2021). Digitale bevis og «sitronmarkedsproblemet» – klarer vi å skille mellom god og dårlig kvalitet? Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2021). Digitale bevis - kan vi stole på dem? Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina; Røed, Andreas & Jahren, Jørn Helge (2021). Kvalitetskontroll - viktig for rettssikkerheten eller unødvendig tidstyv. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2021). Forensic Expert's bias - challenges and proposed solutions. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2021). Den menneskelige faktors betydning for kvaliteten på digitale bevis. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2020). Reliability and Biasability in digital Forensic decision-making. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2020). Den menneskelige faktors betydning for kvaliteten på databevis. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2020). Quality in digital Forensic examinations - Do digital Forensic examiners produce consistent results? Full text in Research Archive
• Kolflaath, Eivind & Sunde, Nina (2020). Hypoteser (teori og bruk). Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2020). Slepphendt håndtering av digitale bevis kan føre til at uskyldige blir dømt, frykter politiforsker. [Journal]. Advokatbladet. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Nina (2020). Min smartmobil er min borg. Smartmobilens rolle i privatlivet og privat kommunikasjon. Institutt for offentlig rett. p. 199–223. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  I forordet til Tidsskrift for strafferetts temanummer om ny datateknologi skriver professorene Ulf Stridbeck og Inger Marie Sunde «Vi håper at heftet kan bidra til refleksjon over regulering, implementering og praktisering av datarelatert rettslig styring hos så vel praktikere som hos lovgiver». Denne artikkelen er et resultat av oppfordringen. Her rettes søkelyset mot den typen teknologi som antakeligvis hyppigst tas i beslag av politiet – nemlig smartmobilen, og hvilke utfordringer som oppstår når et eldre og lite fleksibelt lovverk møter ny teknologi og nye bruksmønstre. Ifølge den nederlandske professoren Bert-Jaap Koops, handler privatliv om å ha rom hvor man kan være seg selv. Ved siden av kropp og sinn, har kanskje hjemmet vært vårt viktigste rom for privatliv. Teknologiutviklingen har imidlertid gitt oss nye digitale rom for privatliv. Mange av våre aktiviteter har en digital komponent, men det digitale tilbyr også egne, selvstendige livserfaringer. Koops hevder derfor at vi lever en «onlife» tilværelse, og her spiller smartmobilen en viktig rolle. Min hypotese er at en smartmobil vanligvis inneholder så mye privat informasjon, både om eieren og andre personer, at det i mange tilfeller kan være uforholdsmessig å ta beslag i den, jf. straffeprosessloven § 170 a. I denne artikkelen vil jeg redegjøre for synspunkter fra internasjonal teori om privatlivets utstrekning i det digitaliserte samfunnet, og drøfte smarttelefonens funksjoner i lys av dette. Videre vil jeg belyse hvordan teknologiutviklingen skaper problemer for straffeprosessuelle grensedragninger knyttet til bevissikring. Avslutningsvis drøfter jeg risikoen for en slagside i forholdsmessighetsvurderingen, forårsaket av begrenset kunnskap og oppmerksomhet om hvor omfattende inngrep i privatliv og privat kommunikasjon et beslag av en smartmobil kan være.

• Sunde, Nina & Dahl, Olav (2023). Erfaringer fra Kvalitetskontrollprosjektet: Kan sjekklistebasert fagfellevurdering bidra til læring og økt kvalitet på datatekniske rapporter? Politihøgskolen. ISSN 9788278081976. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Kvalitetskontrollprosjektet ble gjennomført som et kombinert forsknings- og utviklingsprosjekt av Nina Sunde og Olav Dahl høsten 2022 til høsten 2023. Politidistrikter og særorgan ble invitert til en serie med workshops for å gjøre seg kjent med det forskningsutviklede Kvalitetskontrollhierarkiet – et nivådelt rammeverk med tilhørende sjekklister for fagfellevurdering og kvalitetskontroll av datatekniske rapporter. Etter invitasjon takket syv politidistrikter/særorgan ja til å delta i Kvalitetskontrollprosjektets pilotfase for å teste ut fagfellevurdering og kvalitetskontroll av datatekniske rapporter ved hjelp av sjekklister, som er sentrale verktøy i dette rammeverket. Piloteringen foregikk i perioden januar - juni 2023. Deltakerne, som var medarbeidere ved enheter for digitalt politiarbeid tiltenkt rolle som fagfelle og deres ledere, ble så intervjuet om erfaringene med fagfellevurdering og kvalitetskontroll i perioden, og om deres tanker om kvalitet og rettssikkerhet mer generelt. Studien viser at en fagfellevurdering er egnet til å fange opp feil i datatekniske rapporter. Samtidig er det klart at noen feil kan gå under radaren dersom fagfellevurderingen kun omfatter lesing av rapporten framfor å verifisere funnet i beslaget eller gjøre nye undersøkelser. Erfaringene fra Kvalitetskontrollprosjektets pilotfase viser også at prosessen med fagfellevurdering og tilbakemelding til rapportskriver gir god læring både for fagfellen som utfører kvalitetskontrollen og for rapportskriver som mottar tilbakemelding. Studien peker tydelig i retning av at ledelse og forankring av kvalitetsarbeidet er viktig for å bidra til å bygge en kvalitetskultur, samt å sørge for at den som gjennomfører fagfellevurdering har riktig kompetanse og tilstrekkelige rammer for å gjennomføre arbeidet. Deltakerne er samstemte om at kvalitetskontroll av datatekniske rapporter er nødvendig for å styrke rettssikkerheten og at det bør gjennomføres som en obligatorisk og systematisk aktivitet. 4 Studien viser at digitale spor blir håndtert av mange ulike roller i straffesakskjeden, og at manglende rolleavklaring, kompetansekrav, regulering og styring i prinsippet innebærer at ‘alle kan gjøre alt’. Resultatene peker på behov for en større grad av regulering og standardisering av hvordan digitale spor og bevis blir håndtert i straffesakskjeden. Deltakerne har gitt beskrivelser av en mengde feil og nesten-feil fra etterforskninger i egne politidistrikt, og er samstemte i sin bekymring om at systemet i dag ikke er rigget for å forebygge eller avdekke feil i tilstrekkelig grad. Studien har avdekket et behov for rutiner og systemer når kritiske feil blir oppdaget. Det er behov for avklaring av roller og ansvar for kartlegging av hvilke følger feilene har fått i avsluttede og pågående etterforskninger, og for å hindre at feilen kan påvirke framtidige straffesaker.

• Sunde, Inger Marie; Bendiksen, Jørgen & Sunde, Nina (2022). Nettprat-prosjektet: Bruk av nettprat-bevis innhentet i etterforskning som treningsdata til en lærende KI-modell. Politihøgskolen. ISSN 9788278081716. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Prosjektet ble gjennomført i et samarbeid mellom Politihøgskolen og Trøndelag politidistrikt. Formålet var å undersøke om data i straffesaker om seksuelle overgrep mot barn var egnet som treningsdata for å utvikle et forebyggende verktøy basert på maskinlæring (kunstig intelligens). Verktøyet hadde i så fall behov for data i nettprat mellom overgriper og fornærmede (barnet), som finnes i straffesakene. Prosjektet har avdekket flere problemer som står i veien for å realisere dette formålet. Størstedelen av data innsamlet i slike straffesaker krever mye behandling for å gjøres maskinlesbare i et konsistent format med tanke på innmating i en lærende algoritme. Ressursbruken ved å gjøre dette må følgelig veies mot verdien av annen innsats som kan gjøres uten bruk av verktøyet. Forskjellig praksis mellom politidistriktene i håndteringen av data sikret som bevis gjør at datatilfanget varierer mellom distriktene, både med hensyn til fullstendighet og kvalitet. Dette svekker kvaliteten til det totale datatilfanget med tanke på bruk som treningsdata for en lærende algoritme. Datatilfanget i straffesaker er utvilsomt en verdifull ressurs som kan utnyttes for å utvikle innovative verktøy som kan hjelpe politiet i å forebygge alvorlige seksuelle overgrep mot barn. Imidlertid tar verken datasystemene eller den praktiske bruken av dem, hensyn til behov som må ivaretas for å kunne utnytte dataene som ressurs i forebyggende arbeid. For å kunne ha et egnet datagrunnlag til forebyggingsformålet må politiet tenke nytt om behandlingen av slike data. Kravene som stilles til ‘high-risk’ KI-systemer og til treningsdataene kvalitet i den foreslåtte europeiske forordningen om kunstig intelligens bør være veiledende.

• Sunde, Nina; Gundhus, Helene Ingebrigtsen; Dahl, Johanne Yttri; Toolan, Fergus & Dror, Itiel E. (2022). Constructing digital evidence: A study on how cognitive and human factors affect digital evidence. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We live in a globalized, digitized and interconnected society, where technology is woven into virtually every aspect of our social relationships and activities. Actions, movements, and communication leave digital traces, often without the actor's knowledge or effort. Such traces are also of great importance for solving crimes. It is therefore essential that digital traces are collected, examined, analysed, and presented in a way that safeguards their evidential value and minimizes erroneous and misleading results. Much research has been done on new methods, tools, processes, and frameworks for handling new technology or new ways of using technology. However, there are relatively few empirical studies of investigative practice among the police's experts in digital traces and evidence - the digital forensic (DF) practitioners. The thesis contributes to filling this knowledge gap with new insight into DF investigation practices, with the main emphasis on how the evidence is analysed and presented. A combination of research methods is used to answer the research question: How can a better understanding of the DF practitioners' role in constructing digital evidence within a criminal investigation enable mitigation of errors and safeguard a fair administration of justice? The thesis is made up of five articles exploring the research question from different perspectives. DF practitioners may be biased The thesis shows that DF practitioners can be influenced by information about the case without significance for the investigation, for example about what type of crime other investigators believe has happened or their assumptions about a suspect's role in the crime that is investigated. This is an important finding since such information easily flows to the DF investigator during the dissemination of assignments and collaboration during the investigation. The research shows that such information influenced how many traces the DF investigators uncovered, and that there is great variation in how they interpreted and concluded about the findings. Digital evidence is elastic Digital evidence is usually perceived as objective, value-neutral and reliable, and is therefore often assigned great value during the investigation and in the court of law. The thesis shows that DF practitioners affect the value of the digital traces through how they describe and present them in their reports. In some cases, this turns out as incorrect and misleading descriptions of the credibility of the traces or their relevance to the criminal case. This can, for example, be descriptions that point towards the suspect's guilt or innocence, or descriptions that present the evidence as more credible than what the investigation in fact provides as a basis for. The thesis’s findings are important for a better understanding of the uncertainties associated with digital traces and evidence, and for being able to develop effective quality assurance measures for DF investigations that can prevent errors of justice and safeguard the rule of law for those who are investigated by the police.

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